Crude Drugs belonging to various Families of Medicinal Importance

Crude Drugs belonging to various Families of Medicinal Importance

This chapter is prepared for PharmD students in accordance with the officially endorsed curriculum in Pakistan.

October 26, 2024

Chapter outline
Phytochemicals: Some of the main classes of phytochemicals
Ranunculaceae: Aconitum, Larkspur, Pulsatilla, Hydrastis
Papaveraaceae: Papaver somniferum, Sanguinaria canadensis
Leguminosae: Acacia, Glycyrrhiza, Senna, Cassia, Tamarind
Umbelliferae: Fennel, Carum, Coriander, Conium, Asafoetida
Apocynaceae: Rauwolfia, Catharanthus
Asclepiadaceae: Gymnema sylvestre, Calotropis gigantea
Asteraceae/Compositae: Artemisia, Silybum marianum, Echinaceae, Arctium lappa
Solanaceae: Belladonna, Hyoscyamus, Stramonium, Capsicum
Scrophulariaceae: Digitalis, Verbascum (Mullien)
Labiatae: Peppermint, Thyme, Spearmint, Salvia, Ocimum
Liliaceae: Garlic, Colchicum, Aloe
Zingiberaceae: Ginger, Curcuma

Phytochemicals

In this section, some classes of phytochemicals are explained very briefly to facilitate comprehension of the chemical constituents of the crude drugs included in this chapter.

Alkaloids
» Alkaloids are basic nitrogenous (nitrogen containing) organic compounds
› Alkaloids usually contain 1 nitrogen atom (N)
› Some alkaloids may contain up to 5 nitrogen atoms
» Alkaloids are derived from amino acids (nitrogen of alkaloids comes from amino acids)
» The names of alkaloids end in ‘ine’, e.g., nicotine (present in tobacco), caffeine (present in tea and coffee), atropine, (present in belladonna), morphine (present in opium), etc. (Figure 1A, B)
» Mostly (not all) alkaloids are white or colorless

Glycosides
» A glycoside is a compound formed by linking sugar(s) with a non-sugar component
» The non-sugar component is called ‘aglycon’ and the sugar component is called ‘glycon’
› So, glycosides are the compounds that yield one or more sugars on hydrolysis
» When the sugar component is glucose, the substance may be called a ‘glucoside’
» For example, digitoxin is a glycoside
› Digitoxin consists of three sugars ‘digitoxose’ and one non-sugar component ‘digitoxigenin’ as given below;
› Digitoxose-O-digitoxose-O-digitoxose-O-digitoxigenin (Figure 2)
» The name of glycosides ends in ‘in’, e.g., digitoxin (present in digitalis), barbaloin (present in aloe), glycyrrhizin (present in glycyrrhiza), etc.

Volatile oils and terpenes
» Volatile oils are odorous principles found in various plant parts
» These evaporate when exposed to air at ordinary temperature, so are called ‘volatile oils’
» Volatile oils represent the ‘essences’ of plants, so are called ‘essential oils’
» Examples: Clove oil, peppermint oil, orange peel oil, lemon oil, cinnamon oil, etc.
» Volatile oils are immiscible with water
› Soluble in ether, alcohol, and most organic solvents
» Almost any type of organic compound may be found in volatile oils (hydrocarbons, alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, ethers, oxides, esters, and others)
» Chemical constituents of most of the volatile oils are terpene derivatives (derived from terpenes)
» Terpenes are natural products which are composed of ‘isoprene units’ (C₅H₈) (Figure 3A)
» Monoterpenes are composed of 2 isoprene units (C₁₀) (Figure 3B)
» Sesquiterpenes are composed of 3 isoprene units (C₁₅)
» Diterpenes are composed of 4 isoprene units (C₂₀)
» Triterpenes are composed of 6 isoprene units (C₃₀)
» In volatile oils, mostly monoterpenes are found, a few are sesquiterpenes
› These monoterpenes can occur in acyclic, monocyclic, and bicyclic forms
» Volatile oils are usually obtained by distillation process
» Terpenes are simple hydrocarbons while if terpenes are modified and contain various functional groups then are called ‘terpenoids’

Fixed oils / Fatty oil
» Fixed oils / Fatty oils are triglycerides of long chain unsaturated fatty acids
» Examples: Peanut oil, coconut oil, castor oil, olive oil, etc.
» Seeds of every plant contain fixed oil
» Fixed oils are usually obtained by expression i.e., pressing the plant material under pressure

Tannins
» Tannins are polyphenolic compounds
» Solutions of tannins precipitate heavy metals, alkaloids, and proteins
» They form colored compounds with iron salts like ferric chloride
» Tannins have astringent character (Definition of astringent)
» Examples: Tannic acid (Figure 4)

Flavonoids
» Flavonoids are polyphenolic compounds
» Their general structure, comprising fifteen carbons, consists of two aromatic rings connected by a three-carbon heterocyclic ring
» Examples: Quercetin, rutin, kaempferol, etc. (Figure 5)

Resins
» Resins are solid or highly viscous substances of plant origin
» Plants secrete resins for their protective benefits in response to injury
› Resins protect plants from insects and pathogens
» Physically resins are usually hard, transparent, or translucent
› On heating, they soften and finally melt
» These are insoluble in water but dissolve more or less completely in alcohol, chloroform, and ether
» ‘Oleoresins’ are homogenous mixtures of resins and volatile oils
» ‘Oleogum resins’ are homogenous mixtures of resin, gum, and volatile oil

Ranunculanceae

Aconitum / Aconite root
» Aconitum consists of the dried roots of Aconitum napellus (Family Ranunculaceae), collected from wild or cultivated plants

Macroscopic characters
» Aconite differs in appearance according to the season of collection
» The aconite formerly cultivated in England was harvested in the autumn and consisted of both parent and daughter roots
› Both are obconical in shape and dark brown in color
» Odor is usually slight
» Taste is at first slightly sweet, followed by tingling and numbness (long chewing may be painful)

Main constituents
» Alkaloids [Aconitine; Mesaconitine; Hypaconitine]

Uses
» Aconitum is a very potent and quick-acting poison
› It has been used as an arrow poison
› In modern medicines, its use is limited due to safety concerns
» Aconitum still holds significance in traditional and some herbal medicine systems including homeopathic preparations, for example;
› Used for pain relief (joint pain, arthritis, and neuralgia) 
› As an anti-inflammatory agent
› To treat circulatory disorders, e.g., to enhance blood circulation and treat cold limbs or cold body
› To treat neurological disorders like epilepsy

Larkspur
» Larkspur is the dried ripe seed of Delphinium consolida (Family Ranunculaceae)

Main constituents
» Alkaloids [Delphinine]
» Fixed oil

Uses
» Larkspur is obsolete
» It is used only as an inactive ingredient in tea mixtures
» Preparations of delphinium flower are sometimes used as a diuretic and vermifuge, as a sedative, and as an appetite stimulant
» In folk medicine, larkspur is used occasionally as a diuretic
» It was formerly used as an anthelmintic
» Although delphine has a paralyzing effect on peripheral and motor nerve endings and the central nervous system
› But, poisonings among humans by Delphinium consolida have never been observed

Pulsatilla
» Pulsatilla is the dried whole plant of Pulsatilla pratensis and/or P. vulgaris (Family Ranunculaceae) collected during the flowering season

Main constituents
» Protoanemonin (aglycon part of a glycoside ‘ranunculin’; formed from ranunculin by an enzymatic action)
» Anemonin (a dimer of protoanemonin)

Uses
» Pasque flower is used for diseases and functional disorders of genital organs
» It is also used in;
› Inflammatory and infectious diseases of skin and mucosa
› Diseases and functional disorders of the gastrointestinal tract and the urinary tract
› Neuralgia
› Migraine
› General restlessness
» The drug has anti-pyretic and sedative properties as well
» The drug is contraindicated during pregnancy

Hydrastis
» Hydrastis consists of the dried rhizome and roots of Hydrastis canadensis (Family Ranunculaceae) (Definition of rhizome)
» It is a small perennial plant; Indigenous to Eastern Canada and the Eastern USA

Main constituents
» Alkaloids [Hydrastine; Berberine; Canadine]

Uses
» To check uterine bleeding
» As a bitter stomachic
» Used locally in the treatment of catarrhal ( inflammation of mucous membrane) conditions of the genitourinary tract
» Hydrastine hydrochloride has been used in various forms to control uterine bleeding
» Hydrastis is contraindicated in pregnancy

Papaveraceae

Opium (افیون / افیم)
» Opium is the air dried milky exudate obtained by incising the unripe capsules of opium poppy Papaver somniferum (Family Papaveraceae)
» The cultivation of the plant and the extraction and sale of opium is banned in many countries

Cultivation, collection, and commerce
» Poppy seeds are sown in October
› When the plants are about 15 cm (6 inches) in height, they are transplanted about 60 cm apart
» It blossoms from April to May
› Capsules mature in June or July
› Each plant bears 5 to 8 capsules
» The ripening capsules, about 4 cm in diameter, change in color from bluish green to yellowish
› This time is critical for latex collection
› The capsules are incised with a knife, which is usually 3 bladed, and the incision is made along the circumference of the capsule (Figure 6A)
» Great skill is required so that the endocarp is not cut
› When the endocarp is broken, the latex flows into the interior of the capsule and is lost
» The latex, white at first, rapidly coagulates and turns brown
» Usually, the incision is done in the evening and the latex is removed (scraped off with a knife) in the early following/next morning and is transferred to a poppy leaf
» Each capsule is incised several times at intervals of 2 or 3 days
» When sufficient latex is collected, it is kneaded (squeezed/pressed) into balls that are wrapped in poppy leaves and dried in the shade
» The latex (opium) is then inspected
» After inspection, the opium is packed

Properties of opium
» Opium occurs as more or less rounded, somewhat flattened masses that are usually about 8 to 15 cm in diameter and weigh from 300 g to 2 kg each
» Externally, opium is pale olive-brown or olive-gray
» It has plasticity when fresh
› But becomes hard and brittle or tough when kept
» Internally, it is coarsely granular or nearly smooth, reddish brown
» Odor is characteristic
» Taste is bitter and characteristic

Main constituents
» Alkaloids [Morphine (Figure 6B); Codeine (methylmorphine) (Figure 6C); Noscapine; Papaverine; Thebaine]
» Meconic acid (a dibasic acid) (Figure 6D)
» Meconic acid is easily detected by the formation of a deep red color on the addition of a solution of ferric chloride
› So, to detect the presence of opium in a given sample, the presence of meconic acid is analyzed

Uses
» Morphine and codeine are called ‘opioids’ and are ‘narcotic analgesics’
Narcotic analgesics are drugs that relieve moderate to severe pain by acting on CNS
› Morphine, causes euphoria, sedation, and then narcotic sleep
› It depresses breathing and slows down evacuation of the stomach; hence may cause constipation and urine retention
» Codeine, in small doses, has an antitussive effect as well
› Codeine is present in many pain killers, e.g., Brufen Plus^® tablets contain ibuprofen and codeine
» Papaverine is spasmolytic and vasodilatory
» Opium is mostly used as a sedative and/or analgesic
» Opium is contraindicated in pregnancy and nursing mothers

♦ The first compound isolated from plant sources was morphine. It was isolated from the opium in 1817 by the German scientist, Friedrich Sertürner.
♦ Heroin: heroin is a semisynthetic product, produced by acetylation of morphine at both OH groups.

♦ Is there any link between poppy capsule, opium, afeem, morphine, heroin, cannabis, bhang, charas, hashish, and marijuana?
♦ What is the difference in the chemical structures of morphine and codeine?
♦ Is opium is an ‘organized’ crude drug or an ‘un-organized’ crude drug?
♦ Do you know the common name and uses of the seeds of Papaver somniferum?

Sanguinaria
» Sanguinaria or bloodroot is the dried rhizomes and roots of Sanguinaria canadensis (Family Papaveraceae)
› Sanguinaria refers to the bloody color of the juice
› Canadensis refers to the plant habitat in Canada
» The drug consists of dark brown, more or less cylindrical pieces of rhizome

Main constituents
» Alkaloids [Sanguinarine; Chelerythrine; Protopine; Allocryptopine]
› These alkaloids are colorless but tend to form colored salts
» Resins
» Starch

Uses
» Stimulating properties
» Expectorant (Definition of expectorant)
» Emetic
» Sanguinaria is also reported to possess anti-microbial, anti-oxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties
» Bloodroot is contraindicated in pregnancy

Leguminosae

Acacia / Acacia gum  (گوند کیکر)
» Acacia, Acacia gum, or gum arabic is the dried gummy exudate obtained from the stems and branches of Acacia senegal or of other related African species of Acacia (Family Leguminosae)

Collection and commerce
» The trees are tapped by making a transverse incision in the bark and peeling the bark both above and below the cut
› In 2 to 3 weeks, the tears of gum formed on this exposed surface are collected

Main constituents
» Polysaccharides
» Arabin
› Arabin is a complex mixture of calcium, magnesium, and potassium salts of arabic acid
› Arabic acid is a branched polysaccharide
» Enzymes (oxidases, peroxidases, and pectinases)

Uses
» It is also used in veterinary medicine for mild diarrhea in small animals, foals, and calves
» Acacia is used to treat diarrhea due to its mild astringent and binding properties, which help reduce excessive fluid in the intestines
» Acacia is often a constituent of cough drops
» Anti-inflammatory
» In traditional medicine, acacia has been used topically to treat wounds and cuts
» Emulsifying agent
» Suspending agent
» Possesses emollient and demulcent properties
» Adhesive and binder in tablet granulation

♦ What is the difference between an ’emollient’ and a ‘demulcent’?
♦ Is acacia an ‘organized’ crude drug or an ‘unorganized’ crude drug?
♦ Why family ‘Leguminosae’ is named so?

Licorice / Glycyrrhiza (ملٹھی)
» Glycyrrhiza or licorice root is the dried rhizome and roots of Glycyrrhiza glabra, or G. glabra var. glandulifera, or other varieties of G. glabra (Family Leguminosae)
› Drug obtained from G. glabra is known in commerce as ‘Spanish licorice’
› Drug obtained from G. glabra var. glandulifera is known in commerce as ‘Russian licorice’

Main constituents
» Glycosides [Glycyrrhizin (also called glycyrrhizic acid); Liquiritin; Isoliquiritin; Liquiritoside; Isoliquiritoside]
› Glycyrrhizin is a saponin glycoside, 50 times as sweet as sugar
» Glucose
» Mannitol
» Starch

Uses
» Demulcent
» Expectorant
› It is used in cough syrups
› Licorice is also an ingredient of Johar Joshanda^® (Qarshi)
» To treat peptic ulcer
» Anti-inflammatory
» Anti-viral
» Immunostimulant
» Glycyrrhizin increases sodium and fluid retention and promotes potassium depletion
› Persons with cardiac problems and hypertension should avoid the consumption of significant quantities of licorice
» Commercially, licorice is added to chewing gums, chocolate candy, cigarettes, smoking mixtures, chewing tobacco, and snuff
› When it is added to beer, it increases the foaminess
» Flavoring agent to mask the bitter taste of drugs
» Surfactant (this property facilitates the absorption of poorly absorbed drugs)

♦ What is the simplest test to detect the presence of saponins in the given sample?
♦ What is an ‘expectorant’?

Senna (سنا مکی)
» Senna or senna leaf consists of the dried leaflet of Cassia acutifolia, or of C. angustifolia (Family Leguminosae)
› Drug obtained from C. acutifolia is known in commerce as ‘Alexandria senna’
› Drug obtained from C. angustifolia is known in commerce as ‘Tinnevelly senna’
» Senna was introduced into European medicine in the ninth or tenth century by the Arabians
» Most of the commercial supply of the drug is collected from plants cultivated in southern India (Tinnevelly)
› Some material is also produced in the Jammu district of India and in Northwest Pakistan

Main constituents
» Anthraquinone glycosides [Sennoside A; Sennoside B; Sennoside C; Sennoside D]
» The aglycon parts of these glycosides are ‘aloe-emodin’ and ‘rhein’
These glycosides are called ‘anthraquinone glycosides’ because they, on hydrolysis, yield ‘anthraquinone’ among the products of hydrolysis.

Uses
» Cathartic; to treat constipation
› The usual dose is 2 g
› The cathartic effect is caused by the inhibition of water and electrolyte absorption from the large intestine, which increases the volume and pressure of the intestinal contents
› This will stimulate colon motility resulting in propulsive contractions
» Senna is occasionally applied topically to treat certain skin conditions due to its antimicrobial properties
» Senna is contraindicated in the presence of intestinal obstruction, acute inflammatory intestinal diseases, or appendicitis

♦ What is the difference between a ‘laxative’, a ‘cathartic’, and a ‘purgative’?

Cassia (املتاس)
» Cassia is the dried ripe fruit (pod) of Cassia fistula (Family Leguminosae)
» The fruit is a cylindrical pod, about 25-30 cm long and 20-25 mm in diameter
› The pod is dark chocolate brown to black in color
› The pod contains from 25 to 100 oval, reddish-brown seeds
› In the fresh pods, the seeds are completely embedded in black pulp, which, however, gradually dries on the septa
› The pulp has a prune-like odor and a sweetish taste

Macroscopic characters
» The fruit is a cylindrical pod
» Chocolate brown to black in color
» Pulp has a sweetish taste

Main constituents
» Anthraquinone glycosides [Rhein]
» Sugars
» Coloring matter
» Volatile oil (in traces)
» Fatty oil
» Citric acid

Uses
» Laxative
» Senna pods are used for flatulence, constipation, fever, anorexia, gout, and jaundice
» Anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory
» Hepatoprotective
» The drug is contraindicated in acute-inflammatory diseases of the intestine and appendicitis

♦ Why C. fistula is called the ‘golden shower tree’?
♦ What is the composition of Hamdard Ghutti^® and Qarshi Ghutti^®?

Tamarind (املی)
» Tamarind is the partially dried fruit of Tamarindus indica (Family Leguminosae) that has been deprived of the outer layer of the pericarp and preserved with sugar

Macroscopic characters
» Tamarind pulp occurs as a reddish-brown, moist, sticky mass
» Odor is pleasant and fruity
» Taste is sweet and acidic

Main constituents
» Organic acids [Citric acid; Tartaric acid]
› The addition of sugar to the manufactured pulp, to act as a preservative, somewhat lowers the natural proportion of acids
» Invert sugar
» Pectin

Uses
» Laxative (useful for digestive health)
» Antipyretic
» The drug is also used for liver and gallbladder ailment

♦ Which chemical constituent is responsible for the sour taste of tamarind?

Umbelliferae

Fennel (سونف)
» Fennel is the dried ripe fruit of Foeniculum vulgare (Family Umbelliferae)

Macroscopic characters
» Color is greenish brown
» Odor is aromatic
» Taste is distinct and sweet

Main constituents
» Volatile oil
› Chemical constituents of volatile oil are [Anethole; Fenchone; Estragole; Anisaldehyde; α-pinene]
» Traces of fixed/fatty oil

Uses
» Antispasmodic
» Carminative (Definition of carminative)
» Stimulates gastrointestinal motility
» Aids in digestion
» In traditional medicines, fennel is used to treat [Dyspeptic complaints; Loss of appetite; Hiccups; Colic; Vomiting; Flatulence]
» Fennel is also effective in coughing
› This is the reason, fennel oil is an ingredient of Johar Joshanda^® (Qarshi)
» Flavoring agent
» Fennel is also an ingredient of Chuarqa^® (Qarshi)
› Chuarqa^® is a natural product made with aqueous distillates of dill, mint, ajwain, and fennel
› It is claimed to regulate the digestive system and refresh the heart and brain

Carum / Caraway (زیرہ)
Caraway is the dried ripe fruit of Carum carvi (Family Umbelliferae)

Macroscopic characters
» Color is brown
» Odor and taste are characteristic and spicy

Main constituents
» Volatile oil [Carvone; Limonene]
» Traces of fixed/fatty oil
» Proteins

Uses
» Carminative
» Antispasmodic
» Antimicrobial
» Can relieve coughing
» In folk medicine, caraway is used to improve lactation in nursing mothers
» Flavoring agent

Coriander (دھنیہ)
Coriander is the dried ripe fruit of Coriandrum sativum (Family Umbelliferae)

Macroscopic characters
The ripe fruit is of straw-yellow color
The fruits have an aromatic odor and a spicy taste

Main constituents
» Volatile oil [Linalool (also called coriandrol); Limonene; p-cymene; α-pinene
» Traces of fatty/fixed oil

Uses
» Antispasmodic
» Carminative
» In traditional medicines, coriander is used to treat [Dyspeptic complaints; Colic; Vomiting; Flatulence; Bladder complaints; Painful micturition]
» Flavoring agent

Conium
» Conium, also called ‘hemlock fruit’, consists of the dried, full grown but unripe fruits of Conium maculatum (Family Umbelliferae)
» It is a poisonous plant indigenous to Europe
» The juice of this plant constituted the famous hemlock poison of the Greeks and was employed by them in putting their criminals to death

Main constituents
» Alkaloids [Coniine]

Uses
» Use of conium is inadvisable due to the uncontrollable amounts of coniine (the drug is severely poisonous)
» Formerly, in folk medicine, the drug was used internally for [Neuralgia; Rheumatism of the muscles and joints; Stiffness of the neck, Epileptic cramps,
Bronchial spasms]
» Externally, the drug was used as an ointment for [Coughs; Asthma; Sciatica; Backache; Neuralgia]
» In homeopathic medicines, conium is used to treat [Cysts; Tumors; Sexual problems]

♦ It is commonly believed that Socrates was put to death with a decoction of Conium maculatum.
♦ Do you know who was Socrates and why he was put to death?

Asafoetida / Asafetida (ہینگ)
» Asafoetida is the oleo-gum resin obtained by incising the living rhizomes and roots of Ferula asafoetida and other species of Ferula (Family Umbelliferae)
› Asafoetida is ill-smelling and has an offensive odor
› It is also called ‘devil’s dung’

Physical properties
» Soft, sometimes semiliquid mass
» Asafoetida occurs in two principal forms
› Tears: Rounded or flattened, greyish-white, dull yellow or reddish-brown in color
› Mass: Tears agglutinated into masses
» Mass asafoetida is the commonest commercial form
» Odor is persistently alliaceous (resembling garlic or onion)
» Taste is bitter, alliaceous, and acrid
» Asafoetida should be kept in closed bottles

Main constituents
» Volatile oil
» Resins
» Gums
» Minerals
» The bad smell (garlic like) is due to the presence of propyl isobutyl disulfide and other related sulphur compounds

Uses
» Carminative
» Expectorant
» Laxative
» Antispasmodic
» The drug has a mild intestinal disinfectant effect
» Asafoetida can relieve menstrual cramps
» Asafoetida is a key ingredient in Indian vegetarian cooking, adding a savory flavor to curries, daals, and soups
» The drug is contraindicated in pregnancy
» Mensofar tablets^® (Qarshi) contain asafoetida; used to treat menorrhagia, amenorrhea, and dysmenorrhea

Apocynaceae

Rauwolfia / Rauvolfia
» Rauwolfia is the dried root of Rauwolfia serpentina (Rauvolfia serpentina) (Family Apocynaceae)
› Sometimes, fragments of rhizome and aerial stem bases are attached

Main constituents
» Alkaloids [Reserpine; Rescinnamine; Deserpidine; Ajmaline;› Isoajmaline; Rauwolfinine; Serpentine; Serpentinine; Alstonine]
» Phytosterols
» Fatty acids
» Sugars

Uses
» Rauwolfia preparations and reserpine are used in the management of essential hypertension
» It can be used to treat certain neuropsychiatric disorders such as anxiety, epilepsy, insomnia, and insanity
» The drug has sedative activity

♦ Aajmaline was first isolated by Dr. Salimuzzaman Siddiqui from the roots of Rauvolfia serpentina. He named it ajmaline, after Hakim Ajmal Khan.
♦ What is the relation between Hakim Ajmal Khan, Ajmal Dawakhana, Salimuzzaman Siddiqui, and H.E.J Institute of Chemistry, Karachi?

Catharanthus (سدا بہار)
» Catharanthus or vinca is the dried whole plant of Catharanthus roseus (Family Apocynaceae), formerly designated Vinca rosea

Main constituents
» Alkaloids [Vinblastine; Vincristine]
» 500 kg catharanthus gives 1 g of vincristine

Uses
» Anti-cancer
› Vinblastine is used mainly for the treatment of generalized Hodgkin’s disease, and non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas
› Vincristine is used principally in the treatment of acute lymphocytic leukemia in children
› It has other applications for lymphomas, small-cell lung cancer, and cervical and breast cancers
› The semi-synthetic vindesine is also used in the treatment of acute lymphoid leukemia in children
› Vincristine has superior anti-tumor activity compared to vinblastine, but is more neurotoxic
› Both vincristine and vinblastine bind to the microtubular proteins of the mitotic spindle and prevent cell division during the anaphase of mitosis

♦ Have you ever seen Catharanthus roseus plant? If not, go and find it. This plant is very common.
♦ The discovery of vinblastine and vincristine is an interesting story, worth reading.

Asclepiadaceae

Gymnema sylvestre (گڑ مار بوٹی)
» It consists of the dried leaves of Gymnema sylvestre (Family Asclepiadaceae)

Main constituents
» Gymnemic acids (glycosides of triterpene)
» Gymnemagenin (a triterpenoid)
› Gymnemic acids are antisweet principles and exhibit an inhibitory effect on the levels of plasma glucose

Uses
» Antidiabetic
» Expectorant
» Diuretic
» Astringent
» Emetic
» Stomachic

♦ What is an ‘astringent’ property of a drug? How this character is important medicinally?

Calotropis gigantea (آک)
» It consists of dried aerial parts of Calotropis gigantea (Family Asclepiadaceae)
» C. gigantea is also called ‘giant milkweed’
» C. gigantea is a shrub, occasionally tree-like, which grows up to 3 m high

Main constituents
» Cardioactive steroid glycosides [Calotropin; Calactin; Uscharidin]
» Sterols [β-sitosterol; Taraxasterol]

Uses
» Flowers: Stomachic, antitussive, and anti-asthmatic
» Milky juice: Purgative (gastrointestinal irritant)
» Leaves: Used in external swelling

♦ Have you ever seen Calotropis gigantea? If not, go and find it. This plant is very common.
♦ Why Calotropis gigantea is called ‘giant milkweed’?

Asteraceae / Compositae

Artemisia
» It consists of the aerial parts of Artemisia annua (Family Asteraceae)
› The plant is native to China

Main constituents
» Sesquiterpene lactone [Artemisinin]
» Although artemisinin has been synthesized, the process is complex and not economically viable
› So, artemisinin is obtained from A. annua herb
› The amount of artemisinin present in the plant is about 0.5% of the dry weight of the herb
› Additionally, plants contain larger amounts of the compound artemisinic acid, which may be converted chemically into artemisinin, thus increasing
the yield

Uses
» Antimalarial
› It is used to treat cases of chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum and particularly cerebral malaria
» The drug also possesses anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory properties
» The medicines available in the market contain artemether (e.g., Artem Plus^® by Hilton)
› Artemether is a derivative of artemisinin and is more active than artemisinin

♦ Artemisinin was discovered by Tu Youyou, a Chinese scientist, who was awarded the 2015 Nobel Prize in Medicine for this discovery.

Silybum marianum / Milk thistle (اونٹ کٹارا)
» It consists of the dried fruits of Silybum marianum (Family Asteraceae)

Main constituents
» Flavonoids [Silymarin; Silybin; Silydianin]
» Fixed oil

Uses
» Hepatoprotective agent (by silymarin)
» Anti-inflammatory

♦ Is Silybum marianum commonly found in Pakistan?
♦ Silliver^® is a very famous brand of Abbott, containing silymarin.

Echinacea
» Echinacea refers to the dried rhizome and roots of Echinacen purpureae (Family Asteraceae)

Main constituents
» Water-soluble immunostimulating polysaccharides and glycoproteins
» Volatile oil
» Flavonoids
» Caffeic acid derivatives

Uses
» Orally
› In supportive therapy for colds and infections of the respiratory and urinary tract by stimulation of the immune response
» External uses
› Promotion of wound healing and treatment of inflammatory skin conditions

Arctium lappa / Burdock
» Burdock or lappa is the dried first-year root of Arctium lappa (Family Asteraceae)

Main constituents
» Fatty acids
» Organic acids
» Phenolic acids
» Lignans
» Sesquiterpenes
» Tannins
» Inulin
» Mucilage

Uses
» Diuretic
» For treatment of gout, rheumatism, and syphilitic disorders
» Preparations of the root have also been used to stimulate hair growth and to treat chronic skin conditions, such as dandruff and psoriasis
» Herbal tea

Solanaceae

Belladonna
» Belladonna leaf, belladonna herb or deadly nightshade leaf consists of the dried leaf and flowering or fruiting top of Atropa belladonna (Family Solanaceae)
» ‘Atropa’ is from Greek ‘Atropos’, which refers to the poisonous character of the drug
» ‘Belladonna’ is from two Italian words ‘bella’ meaning beautiful, ‘donna’ meaning lady
› This probably refers to the fact that the juice of the berries of this plant when placed in the eyes, causes dilation of the pupils, giving an outstanding appearance

Main constituents
» Alkaloids [Hyoscyamine; Atropine]
› Atropine is the racemic mixture of (–)-hyoscyamine and (+)-hyoscyamine
› Atropine exists only in traces in the fresh plant
› Atropine is formed during the extraction process

Uses
» Spasmolytic agent (due to parasympathetic depressant action)
» To control excess motor activity of GIT and spasms of the urinary tract (due to its anticholinergic properties)
» Belladonna leaves are mainly used for internal preparations which are used as sedatives and to check secretion

Hyoscyamus (اجوائن خراسانی)
» Hyoscyamus (also called henbane) is the dried leaf, with or without the stem and flowering or fruiting top, of Hyoscyamus niger (Family Solanaceae)

Main constituents
» Alkaloids [Hyoscyamine; Scopolamine (also called hyoscine)]

Uses
» To relieve spasms of the urinary tract
» It is also used with strong purgatives to prevent griping (an acute intermittent cramp-like pain)
» Henbane resembles belladonna and stramonium in action but is somewhat weaker
» The higher relative proportion of hyoscine in the alkaloid mixture makes it less likely to give rise to cerebral excitement than does belladonna

♦ What is the difference between hyoscyamine, hyoscine, atropine, and scopolamine?
♦ Do you know… A very famous brand Buscopan^® contains which drug?

Stramonium
» Stramonium, jimson weed or Jamestown weed consists of the dried leaf and flowering or fruiting tops with branches of Datura stramonium (Family Solanaceae)

Main constituents
» Alkaloids [Hyoscyamine; Scopolamine]

Uses
» Powdered stramonium is an ingredient in preparations that are intended to burn
› The resultant vapor is inhaled for the relief of asthma
» Used for convulsive cough
» It was also used as a basic therapy for diseases of the autonomic nervous system
» Patients with urine retention or coronary sclerosis should not use stramonium

Capsicum
» Capsicum, chilies, or red pepper is the dried ripe fruit of Capsicum frutescens, C. annuum var. conoides, and C. annuum var. longum (Family Solanaceae)

Main constituents
» Oleoresins [Capsaicin]
› Capsaicin is an extremely pungent principle
› 1 part diluted with 11 million parts of water, even then gives a pungent taste
» Volatile oils
» Fixed oils
» Ascorbic acid
» Carotenoids

Uses
» Carminative
» Stimulant
» Counter irritant (Definition of counter irritant)
» Rubefacient
» Applying creams and lotions containing capsaicin can temporarily relieve chronic pain from several conditions
› It is FDA approved for this use
» To treat nerve pain in people with diabetes (diabetic neuropathy)
› A specific cream containing 0.075% capsaicin (Zostrix HP^®) 4 times daily is approved for treating this condition
» Applying a patch containing 8% capsaicin (Qutenza^®) reduces pain of nerve damage caused by shingles (postherpetic neuralgia) over 24 hours
» Condiment
♦ What is a counter irritant and a rubefacient? Are these characters beneficial for human health? If yes, how?

Scrophulariaceae

Digitalis
» Digitalis or foxglove is a crude drug that consists of the dried leaves of Digitalis purpurea (Family Scrophulariaceae)

Main constituents
» Cardioactive glycosides
› Primary glycosides (Purpurea glycoside A, purpurea glycoside B, and glucogitaloxin)
› Secondary glycosides (Digitoxin, gitoxin, gitaloxin)
» Secondary glycosides are derived from primary glycosides, on drying, by enzyme degradation
» Only secondary glycosides are therapeutically active

Uses
» To treat
› Congestive cardiac failure
› Supraventricular tachycardia
› Atrial flutter
› Atrial fibrillation

♦ Digitalis is a crude drug obtained from Digitalis purpurea.
♦ Digitalis lanata is a crude drug obtained from Digitalis lanata.

Verbascum
» Verbascum is the dried flower, reduced to the corolla and androecium, of Verbascum thapsus, V. densiflorum, and/or V. phlomoides (Family Scrophulariceae)

Main constituents
» Flavonoids
» Iridoids
» Polysaccharides
» Saponins

Uses
» For the treatment of bronchial conditions particularly bronchitis and catarrh
» Expectorant
» Demulcent

Labiatae

Peppermint (پودینہ)
» Peppermint consists of the dried leaf and flowering top of Mentha piperita (Family Labiatae)

Main constituents
» Volatile oil [Menthol; Menthyl acetate; Menthone]
» Flavonoids
» Resins
» Tannins

Uses
» The drug has a spasmolytic effect on the smooth muscle of the digestive tract
» Peppermint is used for convulsive complaints of the gastrointestinal tract as well as the gallbladder and bile ducts
» It is utilized for nausea, vomiting, morning sickness, and colds
» Flavoring agent
» Carminative
» Stimulant
» Counter irritant
» In chewing gums, shampoos, and toothpastes

♦ Do you know… Why menthol causes a cooling effect? Menthol binds to a cold receptor and causes the same nerve stimulus as, for example, contact with cold water.
♦ Menthol is one of the ingredients of Vicks VapoRub^®, Curit Drops^®, and Hydryllin Syrup^®.
♦ Peppermint oil is used as a flavoring agent in Phillips Milk of Magnesia^®.

Thyme
» It consists of the dried leaves and flower tops of Thymus vulgaris (Family Labiatae)

Main constituents
» Volatile oil [Thymol]
» Saponins
» Flavonoids
» Ursolic acid
» Caffeic acid
» Tannins
» Resins

Uses
» Germicidal
» It is bronchial antispasmodic and is used to treat cough and bronchitis
» Externally, it is used as a mouthwash and gargle for inflammations of the mouth and throat
» It is also used externally for tonsillitis and poorly healing wounds
» Dried thyme is spread in clothes to repel insects
» Flavoring agent

Spearmint
» Spearmint consists of the dried leaf and flowering top of Mentha spicata (common spearmint) or of M. cardiaca (Scotch spearmint) (Family Labiatae)

Main constituents
» Volatile oil [Carvone]
» Flavonoids
» Resins
» Tannins

Uses
» Spearmint is used for digestive disorders and as a remedy for flatulence
» Carminative
» Flavoring agent

Salvia
» It comprises of the dried leaves of Salvia officinalis (Family Labiatae)

Main constituents
» Volatile oil [α– and β-thujone; Cineole; Borneol]
» Diterpenes
» Phenolic glycosides
» Tannins

Uses
» As a mouthwash and gargle for its antiseptic and astringent action
» Treatment of Alzheimer’s disease and memory loss
» Astringent
» Anti-inflammatory
» Carminative
» Antispasmodic
» Antiseptic

Ocimum
» It consists of the dried aerial parts of Ocimum basilicum and O. sanctum (Family Labiatae)

Main constituents
» Volatile oil
» Flavonoids
» Resisns

Uses
» Carminative
» Stomachic (stimulates the appetite and improves digestion)
» Anti-spasmodic
» Anti-asthmatic
» Anti-rheumatic
» Expectorant
» Stimulant
» Hepatoprotective
» Antipyretic
» Essential oil: Antibacterial and antifungal

Liliaceae

Garlic (لہسن)
» Garlic is the ripe bulb of Allium sativum (Family Liliaceae)

Main constituents
» Allicin (responsible for the odor of garlic)
› Allicin is an organosulfur compound and is responsible for the odor of garlic 
» Alliin (a nonprotein amino acid )
» Volatile oil
» Fatty oil
» Mucilag

Uses
» Carminative
» Used in hypertension, arteriosclerosis, and raised levels of cholesterol
» Garlic is used internally as an adjuvant to dietetic measures for elevated lipid levels
› Garli Care Tablet^® (Qarshi): Helpful to reduce elevated serum cholesterol and triglycerides
› Concomitant use of garlic with antiplatelets such as aspirin could increase the risk of bleeding due to the effect of garlic on platelet aggregation and fibrinogen
» Aphrodisiac
» Expectorant
» Stimulant

♦ What is the protective role of garlic in CVS diseases?

Colchicum
» Colchicum seed is the dried, ripe seed of Colchicum autumnale (Family Liliaceae)
› Colchicum corm is the dried corm of the same species

Main constituents
» Alkaloids [Colchicine]

Uses
» Source of colchicine
› Colchicine is a gout suppressant

Aloe (مصبر)
» Aloe is the dried latex of the leaves of Aloe barbadensis (also called A. vera), or of A. ferox and hybrids of this species with A. Africana and A. spicata (Family Liliaceae)
» Drug obtained from A. barbadensis (A. vera) is known in commerce as ‘Curacao aloe’
» Drug obtained from A. ferox and hybrids of this species with A. Africana and A. spicata is known in commerce as ‘Cape aloe’
› Curacao aloe is superior to Cape aloe

Macroscopic characters
» Aloe occurs as opaque masses
» These masses range from reddish black to brownish black to dark brown in color
» Taste is nauseating and bitter
» Odor is characteristic and disagreeable

Main constituents
» Anthraquinone glycosides [Barbaloin]

Uses
» Cathartic
» Antimicrobial
» To treat constipation, colic, skin diseases, amenorrhea, worm infestation, and infections
» Aloe is contraindicated in cases of intestinal obstruction, acutely inflamed intestinal diseases (e.g., Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis), appendicitis, and abdominal pain of unknown origin
» Chronic use of aloe can lead to potassium loss, which can increase the actions of cardiac glycosides and antiarrhythmic drugs
» There is an increase in the possibility of potassium deficiency when aloe is used along with thiazide diuretics, loop diuretics, licorice, and corticosteroids
» Aloe should not be used during pregnancy
» Aloe should not be prescribed to children under 12 years of age

♦ What is the link between ‘musabbir’, ‘aloe vera’, and ‘kanwar gandal’?

Zingiberaceae

Ginger / Zingiber (ادرک، سونٹھ)
» Ginger is the dried rhizome of Zingiber officinale (Family Zingiberaceae)
› The outer cortical layers are often either partially or completely removed

Main constituents
» Volatile oil [Zingiberene; Zingiberol; Bisabolene]
› This volatile oil is responsible for the characteristic aroma of ginger
» Oleoresin
› Containing zingerone and shogaol (aromatic ketones)
› This oleoresin is responsible for the characteristic pungency of ginger
» Starch (more than 50%)

Uses
» Ginger is used in loss of appetite and dyspeptic complaints
» Carminative
» Anti-inflammatory
» It is used to control motion sickness vomiting
» Anti-emetic
» Condiment
» Flavoring agent
» To manufacture ginger ale (ginger-flavored soft drinks)

♦ And (in paradise) they shall be served with a cup/drink, flavored with ginger. [Quran, Surah Ad-Dahr, Verse 17]
♦ What is the difference between ‘adrak’ and ‘sonth’?

Turmeric / Curcuma (ہلدی)
» Curcuma or turmeric is the prepared rhizome of Curcuma longa (Family Zingiberaceae)
› Turmeric has an aromatic odor and a warm somewhat bitter taste

Main constituents
» Curcumin (a bright yellow phenolic compound)
» Volatile oil
» Starch (30-40%)

Uses
» Turmeric is used for dyspeptic disorders, particularly feelings of fullness after meals and regular abdominal distention due to gas
» The drug is also used for colds, kidney inflammation, and cystitis
» It is used externally for bruising, inflammation of the oral mucosa, inflammatory skin conditions, and infected wounds
» Curcumin is a broad spectrum antimicrobial
» It also has been employed to stimulate biliary secretions and treat gallstone
» Turmeric possesses anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and is used to treat inflammatory conditions
» It is also used, orally and topically, to heal fractured bones
» Curcuma is used as a coloring agent and condiment in curry powders and pickles
» Curcuma is contraindicated in people with obstructed biliary ducts; those with gallstones should take it only under the supervision of a physician/pharmacist

Reading References

» Evans WC. Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy. Elsevier, 16^th edition, 2009.
» Gruenwald J, Thomas B, Christof J. PDR for herbal medicines. Thomson Reuters, 4^th edition, 2000.
» Kar A. Pharmacognosy and Pharmacobiotechnology. New Age International Publishers. 2^nd edition.
» Khare CP. Indian medicinal plants: An illustrated dictionary. Springer, 2008.
» Tyler VE, Brady LR, Robbers JE. Pharmacognosy. Lea & Febiger, 7^th edition, 1976.
» Tyler VE, Brady LR, Robbers JE. Pharmacognosy. Lea & Febiger, 9^th edition, 2003.
» https://media.istockphoto.com/id/1445043432/photo/opium-poppy-heads-papaver-somniferum-drops-milk-latex.jpg?s=612×612&w=0&k=20&c=ParoTrAZmMmKVzgXZkXAVr0Qbz5-_kev5yr_cL2j6qg= [Accessed: October 26, 2024].

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